Stuart Hall en.wikipedia.org argued in a 1973 essay on television discourse that a message is encoded by its makers and decoded by its audience, and that these are two different operations rather than one. His encoding and decoding model en.wikipedia.org sets out three positions a viewer can take up. The dominant-hegemonic reading takes the message in the terms it was sent. The negotiated reading accepts the general frame while carving out exceptions for the viewer's own situation. The oppositional reading understands everything and refuses it.
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